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Kevin __ Fission Reactors __ : Utilize radioactive Uranium isotopes naturally found in the Earth’s crust. A controlled fission process is maintained and the lost mass in the isotope is converted into heat energy. __ Fusion Reactors __ : Fuses isotopes of hydrogen such as deuterium and tritium to produce helium and heat energy. Unfortunately, commercial viable power plants remain a long way off. __ Addition resource article __ : Nuclear Fusion-Fission Hybrid Could Destroy Nuclear Waste and Contribute to Carbon-Free Energy Future Site: [|www.utexas.edu/news/2009/01/27/nuclear_hybrid/]  __ Power Generation Wastes __ :    Image did not show up on blackboard page //Source: // IAEA Bulletin 42,2; 2000 Low-level waste includes items that have become contaminated with radioactive material or have become radioactive through exposure to neutron radiation. This waste typically consists of contaminated protective shoe covers and clothing, wiping rags, mops, filters, reactor water treatment residues and some equipments/tools. __ Mine tailings wastes __ : In general, open pit mining is used where deposits are close to the surface. Open pit mines require large holes on the surface, as a result, the quantity of material that must be removed in order to access the ore may be large. Underground mines have relatively small surface disturbance and the quantity of material that must be removed to access the ore is considerably less than in the case of an open pit mine. Special precautions, consisting primarily of increased ventilation, are required in underground mines to protect against airborne radiation exposure. An increasing proportion of the world's uranium now comes from in situ leach (ISL) mining, where oxygenated groundwater is circulated through a very porous ore body to dissolve the uranium oxide and bring it to the surface. ISL may be with slightly acid or with alkaline solutions to keep the uranium in solution. The uranium oxide is then recovered from the solution as in a conventional mill. Source ( [|www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf03.html] ) __ Uranium enrichment __ : It can also account for the main greenhouse gas impact from the nuclear fuel cycle if the electricity used for enrichment is generated from coal. However, it still only amounts to 0.1% of the carbon dioxide from equivalent coal-fired electricity generation if modern gas centrifuge plants are used, or up to 3% in a worst case situation. Source ([|www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf28.html]) __Spent fuel waste __: Spent nuclear fuel refers to uranium-bearing fuel elements that have been used at commercial nuclear reactors and that are no longer producing enough energy to sustain a nuclear reaction. Once the spent fuel is removed from the reactor the fission process has stopped, but the spent fuel assemblies still generate significant amounts of radiation and heat. Because of the residual hazard, spent fuel must be shipped in containers or casks that shield and contain the radioactivity and dissipate the heat. Source ([|www.nrc.gov/waste/spent-fuel-transp.html]) __ Decommissioned Reactor Waste __ : In the case of nuclear reactors, about 99% of the radioactivity is associated with the fuel which is removed following permanent shutdown. Apart from any surface contamination of plant, the remaining radioactivity comes from "activation products" such as steel components that have long been exposed to neutron irradiation. Source ([|www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf19.html]) The International Atomic Energy Agency has defined three options for decommissioning, the definitions of which have been internationally adopted: Further information on decommissioning in USA is available from Nuclear Energy Institute. [|www.nei.org] = The following figures may be regarded as typical for the annual operation of a 1000 MWe nuclear power reactor:  = 20,000 tonnes of 1% uranium ore || 230 tonnes of uranium oxide concentrate (which contains 195 tonnes of uranium) || 288 tonnes uranium hexafluoride, UF6 (with 195 t U) || 35 tonnes enriched UF6 (containing 24 t enriched U) - balance is 'tails' || 27 tonnes UO2 (with 24 t enriched U) || 8640 million kWh (8.64 TWh) of electricity at full output || 27 tonnes containing 240 kg plutonium, 23 t uranium (0.8% U-235), 720kg fission products, also transuranics. ||  ( [|www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf03.html#Notes] ) __ Performance __ : Size 1.6 GW; Efficiency 36%; Lifetime 60 years; Capacity factor 90%; Construction time 5-7 years. __Nuclear waste__: LLW/ILW: 200-350 m3/GWyear; HLW 10-20 m3/GWyear (3 m3/GWyear after recycling) 1 CO2 reduction potential: 6-7 million ton CO2 /GW year __ Costs __**: **Cost of electricity (COE) $ 30-57/MWh ($47-81/MWh for first-of-kind power plant) 10-15% discount rate Investment cost $ 1800-25002/kW ≈ 65%-70% COE; Decommissioning cost $ 200-500/kW equal to $1-2/MWh O&M cost $ 5-10/MWh ≈ 20%-25 % COE Fuel cost $ 4-5/MWh ≈ 10% COE (25%U; 30% enrich.; 20% manufact.; 25% waste disposal) (Source: IEA WEO 2006)
 * __ Nuclear Energy Overview  __**
 * // Types of reactors  //**
 * // Types of nuclear power generation waste  //**
 * Immediate Dismantling (or Early Site Release/Decon in the US: This option allows for the facility to be removed from regulatory control relatively soon after shutdown or termination of regulated activities. Usually, the final dismantling or decontamination activities begin within a few months or years, depending on the facility. Following removal from regulatory control, the site is then available for re-use.
 * Safe Enclosure (or Safestor): This option postpones the final removal of controls for a longer period, usually in the order of 40 to 60 years. The facility is placed into a safe storage configuration until the eventual dismantling and decontamination activities occur.
 * Entombment : This option entails placing the facility into a condition that will allow the remaining on-site radioactive material to remain on-site without the requirement of ever removing it totally. This option usually involves reducing the size of the area where the radioactive material is located and then encasing the facility in a long-lived structure such as concrete, that will last for a period of time to ensure the remaining radioactivity is no longer of concern.
 * //Wastes generated from the nuclear fuel cycle //**
 * Mining ** ||
 * Mining ** ||
 * Milling ** ||
 * Milling ** ||
 * Conversion ** ||
 * Conversion ** ||
 * Enrichment ** ||
 * Enrichment ** ||
 * Fuel fabrication ** ||
 * Fuel fabrication ** ||
 * Reactor operation ** ||
 * Reactor operation ** ||
 * Used fuel ** ||
 * Used fuel ** ||
 * // Data and Figures for Nuclear Power Plants //**